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In the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound to [[neurophysin]] as shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a large [[peptide]] fragment of the giant precursor [[protein]] molecule from which oxytocin is derived by enzymatic cleavage. | In the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound to [[neurophysin]] as shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a large [[peptide]] fragment of the giant precursor [[protein]] molecule from which oxytocin is derived by enzymatic cleavage. | ||
Oxytocin secretion is regulated by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells in the hypothalamus. These cells generate [[action potential]]s that propagate down [[axon]]s to the nerve endings in the pituitary; the endings contain large numbers of oxytocin-containing vesicles, which are released by [[exocytosis]] when the nerve terminals are depolarised. | |||
===Structure and relation to vasopressin=== | ===Structure and relation to vasopressin=== | ||
[[Image:Oxytocin.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Oxytocin structure. Inset shows oxytocin bound to neurophysin]] | [[Image:Oxytocin.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Oxytocin structure. Inset shows oxytocin bound to neurophysin]] | ||
Oxytocin has nine amino acids (a nonapeptide) | Oxytocin has nine amino acids (a nonapeptide): cysteine - tyrosine - isoleucine - glutamine - asparagine - cysteine - proline - leucine - glycine (CYIQNCPLG). The cysteine residues form a [[sulfur bridge]]. Oxytocin has a molecular mass of 1007 daltons. One [[international unit]] (IU) of oxytocin is the equivalent of about 2 micrograms of peptide. | ||
The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of [[[vasopressin]] (cysteine - tyrosine - <u>phenylalanine</u> - [glutamine - asparagine - cysteine - proline - <u>arginine</u> - glycine), also a nonapeptide with a sulfur bridge whose sequence differs from oxytocin by two amino acids. A table showing the sequences of members of the vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily and the species expressing them is in the [[vasopressin]] article. Oxytocin and vasopressin were discovered, isolated and synthesized by [[Vincent du Vigneaud]] in 1953, work for which he | The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of [[[vasopressin]] (cysteine - tyrosine - <u>phenylalanine</u> - [glutamine - asparagine - cysteine - proline - <u>arginine</u> - glycine), also a nonapeptide with a sulfur bridge whose sequence differs from oxytocin by two amino acids. A table showing the sequences of members of the vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily and the species expressing them is in the [[vasopressin]] article. Oxytocin and vasopressin were discovered, isolated and synthesized by [[Vincent du Vigneaud]] in 1953, work for which he won the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1955. | ||
Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including [[corticotropin-releasing hormone]] (CRH) and [[dynorphin]], for example, that act locally. The magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that make vasopressin, and are similar in many respects. | Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including [[corticotropin-releasing hormone]] (CRH) and [[dynorphin]], for example, that act locally. The magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that make vasopressin, and are similar in many respects. | ||
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*[[Breastfeeding|Letdown reflex]] – in breastfeeding mothers, oxytocin acts at the mammary glands, causing milk to be 'let down' into a collecting chamber, from where it can be extracted by sucking at the nipple. Sucking by the infant at the nipple is relayed by spinal nerves to the hypothalamus. The stimulation causes neurons that make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve terminals of the pituary gland. | *[[Breastfeeding|Letdown reflex]] – in breastfeeding mothers, oxytocin acts at the mammary glands, causing milk to be 'let down' into a collecting chamber, from where it can be extracted by sucking at the nipple. Sucking by the infant at the nipple is relayed by spinal nerves to the hypothalamus. The stimulation causes neurons that make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve terminals of the pituary gland. | ||
*[[Uterine contraction]] – important for cervical dilation before birth and causes contractions during the second and third stages of labor. Oxytocin release during breastfeeding causes mild but often painful uterine contractions during the first few weeks of lactation. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. However, in [[knockout mouse|knockout mice]] lacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductive behavior and parturition is normal. | *[[Uterine contraction]] – important for cervical dilation before birth and causes contractions during the second and third stages of labor. Oxytocin release during breastfeeding causes mild but often painful uterine contractions during the first few weeks of lactation. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. However, in [[knockout mouse|knockout mice]] lacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductive behavior and parturition is normal.<ref>Takayanagi Y ''et al'' (2005) Pervasive social deficits, but normal parturition, in oxytocin receptor-deficient mice. ''Proc Natl Acad Sci USA'' 102:16096-101 PMID 16249339</ref> | ||
*Oxytocin is secreted into the blood at | |||
*Due to its similarity to vasopressin, oxytocin can reduce the excretion of urine slightly. More important, in several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and in humans, high doses of oxytocin can result in [[hyponatremia]]. | *Oxytocin is secreted into the blood at orgasm in both males and females <ref>Carmichael MS''et al'' (1987) Plasma oxytocin increases in the human sexual response. ''J Clin Endocrinol Metab'' 64:27-31 PMID 3782434</ref> In males, oxytocin may facilitate sperm transport in ejaculation. | ||
*Due to its similarity to vasopressin, oxytocin can reduce the excretion of urine slightly (it is a weak agonist at vasopressin receptors). More important, in several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and in humans, high doses of oxytocin can result in [[hyponatremia]]. | |||
*Oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in the heart in some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promoting [[cardiomyocyte]] differentiation. <ref>Jankowski ''et al'' (2004) Oxytocin in cardiac ontogeny. ''Proc Natl Acad Sci USA'' 101:13074-9 [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/35/13074 online] PMID 15316117 | *Oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in the heart in some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promoting [[cardiomyocyte]] differentiation. <ref>Jankowski ''et al'' (2004) Oxytocin in cardiac ontogeny. ''Proc Natl Acad Sci USA'' 101:13074-9 [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/35/13074 online] PMID 15316117 | ||
</ref>. However, the absence of either oxytocin or its receptor in knockout mice has not been reported to produce cardiac insufficiencies. | |||
===Actions of oxytocin within the brain=== | ===Actions of oxytocin within the brain=== | ||
Oxytocin secreted from the pituitary gland cannot re-enter the brain because of the | Oxytocin secreted from the pituitary gland cannot re-enter the brain because of the blood-brain barrier. Instead, the behavioral effects of oxytocin may reflect release from centrally-projecting oxytocin neurons, different from those that project to the pituitary gland. Oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, including the [[amygdala]], [[ventromedial hypothalamus]], [[septum]] and [[brainstem]]. | ||
* Sexual arousal. Oxytocin injected into the cerebrospinal fluid causes spontaneous erections in rats, reflecting actions in the hypothalamus and spinal cord. | * Sexual arousal. Oxytocin injected into the cerebrospinal fluid causes spontaneous erections in rats, reflecting actions in the hypothalamus and spinal cord. | ||
* Bonding. In the [[Prairie Vole]], oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a monogamous pair bond with her sexual partner. Vasopressin appears to have a similar effect in males [http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/14756]. In people, plasma concentrations of oxytocin have been reported to be higher amongst people who claim to be falling in love. Oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, and so | * Bonding. In the [[Prairie Vole]], oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a monogamous pair bond with her sexual partner. Vasopressin appears to have a similar effect in males [http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/14756]. In people, plasma concentrations of oxytocin have been reported to be higher amongst people who claim to be falling in love. Oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, and so might have similar roles in humans. It has been suggested that deficiencies in oxytocin pathways in the brain might be a feature of [[autism]]. | ||
*[[Maternal bond|Maternal behavior]]. Sheep and rat females given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior. By contrast, virgin sheep females show maternal behavior towards foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise. [http://neuroendo.org.uk/index.php/content/view/34/11/] | *[[Maternal bond|Maternal behavior]]. Sheep and rat females given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior. By contrast, virgin sheep females show maternal behavior towards foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise. [http://neuroendo.org.uk/index.php/content/view/34/11/] | ||
*Various anti-stress functions. Oxytocin reduces blood pressure and [[cortisol]] levels, increasing tolerance to pain, and reducing anxiety. Oxytocin may play a role in encouraging "tend and befriend", as opposed to "[[fight or flight]]", behavior, in response to stress. | *Various anti-stress functions. Oxytocin reduces blood pressure and [[cortisol]] levels, increasing tolerance to pain, and reducing anxiety. Oxytocin may play a role in encouraging "tend and befriend", as opposed to "[[fight or flight]]", behavior, in response to stress. | ||
*Increasing trust and reducing fear. In a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told that they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affecting risk-aversion<ref>Kosfeld M ''et al'' (2005) Oxytocin increases trust in humans. '' Nature'' 435:673-676</ref>. Nasally-administered oxytocin has also been reported to reduce fear, possibly by inhibiting the amygdala (which is thought to be responsible for fear responses). <ref>Kirsch P ''et al'' (2005) Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans. ''J Neurosci'' 25:11489-93 PMID 16339042 | *Increasing trust and reducing fear. In a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told that they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affecting risk-aversion<ref>Kosfeld M ''et al'' (2005) Oxytocin increases trust in humans. '' Nature'' 435:673-676</ref>. Nasally-administered oxytocin has also been reported to reduce fear, possibly by inhibiting the amygdala (which is thought to be responsible for fear responses). <ref>Kirsch P ''et al'' (2005) Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans. ''J Neurosci'' 25:11489-93 PMID 16339042 | ||
[http://www.iew.unizh.ch/home/kosfeld/papers/ottrust_nature.pdf PDF] PMID 15931222 | [http://www.iew.unizh.ch/home/kosfeld/papers/ottrust_nature.pdf PDF] PMID 15931222</ref> | ||
*According to some studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of tolerance to various addictive drugs (opiates, cocaine, alcohol) and reduces withdrawal symptoms. <ref>Kovacs GL ''et al'' (1998) Oxytocin and addiction: a review. ''Psychoneuroendocrinology'' 23:945-62 PMID 9924746</ref> | *According to some studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of tolerance to various addictive drugs (opiates, cocaine, alcohol) and reduces withdrawal symptoms. <ref>Kovacs GL ''et al'' (1998) Oxytocin and addiction: a review. ''Psychoneuroendocrinology'' 23:945-62 PMID 9924746</ref> | ||
*Certain learning and memory functions are impaired by centrally-administered oxytocin. | *Certain learning and memory functions are impaired by centrally-administered oxytocin. | ||
| Line 104: | Line 105: | ||
Synthetic oxytocin is sold as medication under the trade names '''Pitocin''' and '''Syntocinon''' and also as [[generic drug|generic]] Oxytocin. Oxytocin is destroyed in the gastrointestinal tract, and therefore must be administered by injection or as [[nasal spray]]. Oxytocin has a half-life of typically about three minutes in the blood. Oxytocin given intravenously does not enter the brain in significant quantities - it is excluded from the brain by the blood-brain barrier. Drugs administered by nasal spray are thought to have better access to the central nervous system. An oxytocin nasal spray has been used to stimulate breastfeeding. | Synthetic oxytocin is sold as medication under the trade names '''Pitocin''' and '''Syntocinon''' and also as [[generic drug|generic]] Oxytocin. Oxytocin is destroyed in the gastrointestinal tract, and therefore must be administered by injection or as [[nasal spray]]. Oxytocin has a half-life of typically about three minutes in the blood. Oxytocin given intravenously does not enter the brain in significant quantities - it is excluded from the brain by the blood-brain barrier. Drugs administered by nasal spray are thought to have better access to the central nervous system. An oxytocin nasal spray has been used to stimulate breastfeeding. | ||
Injected oxytocin analogues are used to induce labour and support labour in case of non-progression of parturition. It has largely replaced [[ergotamine]] as the principal agent to increase uterine tone in acute [[postpartum haemorrhage]]. Oxytocin is also used in veterinary medicine to facilitate birth and to increase milk production. The [[tocolytic]] agent [[atosiban]] ('''Tractocile®''') acts as an [[receptor antagonist|antagonist]] of oxytocin receptors; this drug is registered in many countries to suppress premature labour between 24 and 33 weeks of gestation. It has fewer side-effects than drugs previously used for this | Injected oxytocin analogues are used to induce labour and support labour in case of non-progression of parturition. It has largely replaced [[ergotamine]] as the principal agent to increase uterine tone in acute [[postpartum haemorrhage]]. Oxytocin is also used in veterinary medicine to facilitate birth and to increase milk production. The [[tocolytic]] agent [[atosiban]] ('''Tractocile®''') acts as an [[receptor antagonist|antagonist]] of oxytocin receptors; this drug is registered in many countries to suppress premature labour between 24 and 33 weeks of gestation. It has fewer side-effects than drugs previously used for this ([[ritodrine]], [[salbutamol]] and [[terbutaline]]). | ||
==Evolution== | ==Evolution== | ||
All vertebrates have an oxytocin-like nonapeptide hormone that supports reproductive functions and a vasopressin-like nonapeptide hormone involved in water regulation. The two genes are always located close to each other (less than 15,000 bases apart) on the same chromosome and are transcribed in opposite directions. It is thought that the two genes resulted from a [[gene duplication]] event; the ancestral gene is estimated to be about 500 million years old and is found in cyclostomes (modern members of the [[Agnatha]]). | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
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<references/> | |||
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* Caldwell HK, Young WS III. (2006) Oxytocin and vasopressin: genetics and behavioral implications. In Lim R. (ed.) ''Handbook of Neurochemistry and Molecular Neurobiology'' 3rd edition, Springer, New York [http://refworks.springer.com/mrw/fileadmin/pdf/Neurochemistry/0387303480C25.PDF 320kb PDF] | * Caldwell HK, Young WS III. (2006) Oxytocin and vasopressin: genetics and behavioral implications. In Lim R. (ed.) ''Handbook of Neurochemistry and Molecular Neurobiology'' 3rd edition, Springer, New York [http://refworks.springer.com/mrw/fileadmin/pdf/Neurochemistry/0387303480C25.PDF 320kb PDF] | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
Revision as of 10:28, 2 November 2006
oxytocin, prepro- (neurophysin I)
| |
| Identifiers | |
| Symbol(s) | OXT OT |
| Entrez | 5020 |
| OMIM | 167050 |
| RefSeq | NM_000915 |
| UniProt | P01178 |
| Other data | |
| Locus | Chr. 20 p13 |
oxytocin receptor
| |
| Identifiers | |
| Symbol(s) | OXTR |
| Entrez | 5021 |
| OMIM | 167055 |
| RefSeq | NM_000916 |
| UniProt | P30559 |
| Other data | |
| Locus | Chr. 3 p25 |
Oxytocin (Greek: "quick birth") is a mammalian hormone that also acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. In women, it is released mainly after distention of the cervix and vagina during labor, and after stimulation of the nipples, facilitating childbirth and breastfeeding, respectively. Oxytocin is released during orgasm in both sexes. In the brain, oxytocin is involved in social recognition and bonding, and might be involved in the formation of trust between people.
Synthesis, storage and release
Oxytocin is made in magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and is released into the blood from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Oxytocin is also made by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord.
In the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound to neurophysin as shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a large peptide fragment of the giant precursor protein molecule from which oxytocin is derived by enzymatic cleavage.
Oxytocin secretion is regulated by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells in the hypothalamus. These cells generate action potentials that propagate down axons to the nerve endings in the pituitary; the endings contain large numbers of oxytocin-containing vesicles, which are released by exocytosis when the nerve terminals are depolarised.
Structure and relation to vasopressin
Oxytocin has nine amino acids (a nonapeptide): cysteine - tyrosine - isoleucine - glutamine - asparagine - cysteine - proline - leucine - glycine (CYIQNCPLG). The cysteine residues form a sulfur bridge. Oxytocin has a molecular mass of 1007 daltons. One international unit (IU) of oxytocin is the equivalent of about 2 micrograms of peptide.
The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of [[[vasopressin]] (cysteine - tyrosine - phenylalanine - [glutamine - asparagine - cysteine - proline - arginine - glycine), also a nonapeptide with a sulfur bridge whose sequence differs from oxytocin by two amino acids. A table showing the sequences of members of the vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily and the species expressing them is in the vasopressin article. Oxytocin and vasopressin were discovered, isolated and synthesized by Vincent du Vigneaud in 1953, work for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1955.
Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and dynorphin, for example, that act locally. The magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that make vasopressin, and are similar in many respects.
Actions
Oxytocin has peripheral (hormonal) actions, and also has actions in the brain. The actions of oxytocin are mediated by a specific, high affinity oxytocin receptor; this is a G-protein-coupled receptor, which requires magnesium and cholesterol. G[1] It belongs to the rhodopsin-type (class I) group of G-protein-coupled receptors.
Peripheral (hormonal) actions
The peripheral actions of oxytocin mainly reflect secretion from the pituitary gland. There are receptors for oxytocin receptors in the myoepithelial cells of the mammary gland, and in both the myometrium and endometrium of the uterus at the end of pregnancy. In some mammals, oxytocin receptors are also found in the kidney and heart.
- Letdown reflex – in breastfeeding mothers, oxytocin acts at the mammary glands, causing milk to be 'let down' into a collecting chamber, from where it can be extracted by sucking at the nipple. Sucking by the infant at the nipple is relayed by spinal nerves to the hypothalamus. The stimulation causes neurons that make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve terminals of the pituary gland.
- Uterine contraction – important for cervical dilation before birth and causes contractions during the second and third stages of labor. Oxytocin release during breastfeeding causes mild but often painful uterine contractions during the first few weeks of lactation. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. However, in knockout mice lacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductive behavior and parturition is normal.[2]
- Oxytocin is secreted into the blood at orgasm in both males and females [3] In males, oxytocin may facilitate sperm transport in ejaculation.
- Due to its similarity to vasopressin, oxytocin can reduce the excretion of urine slightly (it is a weak agonist at vasopressin receptors). More important, in several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and in humans, high doses of oxytocin can result in hyponatremia.
- Oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in the heart in some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promoting cardiomyocyte differentiation. [4]. However, the absence of either oxytocin or its receptor in knockout mice has not been reported to produce cardiac insufficiencies.
Actions of oxytocin within the brain
Oxytocin secreted from the pituitary gland cannot re-enter the brain because of the blood-brain barrier. Instead, the behavioral effects of oxytocin may reflect release from centrally-projecting oxytocin neurons, different from those that project to the pituitary gland. Oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, including the amygdala, ventromedial hypothalamus, septum and brainstem.
- Sexual arousal. Oxytocin injected into the cerebrospinal fluid causes spontaneous erections in rats, reflecting actions in the hypothalamus and spinal cord.
- Bonding. In the Prairie Vole, oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a monogamous pair bond with her sexual partner. Vasopressin appears to have a similar effect in males [1]. In people, plasma concentrations of oxytocin have been reported to be higher amongst people who claim to be falling in love. Oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, and so might have similar roles in humans. It has been suggested that deficiencies in oxytocin pathways in the brain might be a feature of autism.
- Maternal behavior. Sheep and rat females given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior. By contrast, virgin sheep females show maternal behavior towards foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise. [2]
- Various anti-stress functions. Oxytocin reduces blood pressure and cortisol levels, increasing tolerance to pain, and reducing anxiety. Oxytocin may play a role in encouraging "tend and befriend", as opposed to "fight or flight", behavior, in response to stress.
- Increasing trust and reducing fear. In a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told that they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affecting risk-aversion[5]. Nasally-administered oxytocin has also been reported to reduce fear, possibly by inhibiting the amygdala (which is thought to be responsible for fear responses). [6]
- According to some studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of tolerance to various addictive drugs (opiates, cocaine, alcohol) and reduces withdrawal symptoms. [7]
- Certain learning and memory functions are impaired by centrally-administered oxytocin.
Uses
Template:Drugbox Synthetic oxytocin is sold as medication under the trade names Pitocin and Syntocinon and also as generic Oxytocin. Oxytocin is destroyed in the gastrointestinal tract, and therefore must be administered by injection or as nasal spray. Oxytocin has a half-life of typically about three minutes in the blood. Oxytocin given intravenously does not enter the brain in significant quantities - it is excluded from the brain by the blood-brain barrier. Drugs administered by nasal spray are thought to have better access to the central nervous system. An oxytocin nasal spray has been used to stimulate breastfeeding.
Injected oxytocin analogues are used to induce labour and support labour in case of non-progression of parturition. It has largely replaced ergotamine as the principal agent to increase uterine tone in acute postpartum haemorrhage. Oxytocin is also used in veterinary medicine to facilitate birth and to increase milk production. The tocolytic agent atosiban (Tractocile®) acts as an antagonist of oxytocin receptors; this drug is registered in many countries to suppress premature labour between 24 and 33 weeks of gestation. It has fewer side-effects than drugs previously used for this (ritodrine, salbutamol and terbutaline).
Evolution
All vertebrates have an oxytocin-like nonapeptide hormone that supports reproductive functions and a vasopressin-like nonapeptide hormone involved in water regulation. The two genes are always located close to each other (less than 15,000 bases apart) on the same chromosome and are transcribed in opposite directions. It is thought that the two genes resulted from a gene duplication event; the ancestral gene is estimated to be about 500 million years old and is found in cyclostomes (modern members of the Agnatha).
References
- ↑ Gimpl G, Fahrenholz F (2001) The oxytocin receptor system: structure, function, and regulation. Physiological Reviews 81: full text PMID 11274341
- ↑ Takayanagi Y et al (2005) Pervasive social deficits, but normal parturition, in oxytocin receptor-deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:16096-101 PMID 16249339
- ↑ Carmichael MSet al (1987) Plasma oxytocin increases in the human sexual response. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 64:27-31 PMID 3782434
- ↑ Jankowski et al (2004) Oxytocin in cardiac ontogeny. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:13074-9 online PMID 15316117
- ↑ Kosfeld M et al (2005) Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 435:673-676
- ↑ Kirsch P et al (2005) Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans. J Neurosci 25:11489-93 PMID 16339042 PDF PMID 15931222
- ↑ Kovacs GL et al (1998) Oxytocin and addiction: a review. Psychoneuroendocrinology 23:945-62 PMID 9924746
- Caldwell HK, Young WS III. (2006) Oxytocin and vasopressin: genetics and behavioral implications. In Lim R. (ed.) Handbook of Neurochemistry and Molecular Neurobiology 3rd edition, Springer, New York 320kb PDF
External links
- Economist.com - 'Paying through the nose: A person's level of trust can be changed with a chemical spray', The Economist (June 2, 2005)
- NewScientist.com - 'Trust me, I’m spraying you with hormones' (report on trust study), Andy Coghlan, New Scientist (June 1, 2005
- NewScientist.com - 'Release of Oxytocin due to penetrative sex reduces stress and neurotic tendencies', New Scientist (January 26, 2006)
- NIH.gov - 'Oxytocin (Systemic)' (drug information), National Institute of Medicine
- Oxytocin.org - 'I get a kick out of you: Scientists are finding that, after all, love really is down to a chemical addiction between people', The Economist (February 12, 2004)
- SMH.com.au - 'To sniff at danger: Inhalable oxytocin could become a cure for social fears', Boston Globe (January 12, 2006)