User:Boris Tsirelson/Sandbox1: Difference between revisions

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In [[Newtonian mechanics]], coordinates of moving bodies are functions of time. For example, the classical equation for a falling body; its height ''h'' at a time ''t'' is
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:<math> h = f(t) = h_0 - 0.5 g t^2 </math>
The [[Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle|Heisenberg uncertainty principle]] for a particle does not allow a state in which the particle is simultaneously at a definite location and has also a definite momentum. Instead the particle has a range of momentum and spread in location attributable to quantum fluctuations.
(here ''h''<sub>0</sub> is the initial height, and ''g'' is the [[acceleration due to gravity]]). Infinitely many corresponding values of ''t'' and ''h'' are embraced by a single function ''f''.


{{Image|Moving wave.gif|right||<small>Vibrating string: a function changes in time</small>}}
An uncertainty principle applies to most of quantum mechanical operators that do not commute (specifically, to every pair of operators whose commutator is a non-zero scalar operator).
The instantaneous shape of a vibrating string is described by a function (the displacement ''y'' as a function of the coordinate ''x''), and this function changes in time:
:<math> y = f_t (x). </math>
Infinitely many functions ''f''<sub>''t''</sub> are embraced by a single function ''f'' of two variables,
:<math> y = f(x,t). </math>
 
After some speculations by Galileo and mathematical interpretation by [[Brook Taylor]] (1715/1717) and Johann Bernoulli (1727), the mathematical theory of vibrating string was started by [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert|Jean d'Alembert]] (1746/1749). His approach is equivalent to a [[partial differential equation]] written out by [[Leonhard Euler]] in 1755,
:<math>
\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} f(x,t) = \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} f(x,t),
</math>
now well-known as the one-dimensional [[Wave equation (classical physics)|wave equation]]. D'Alembert found a solution as the superposition of two waves, one traveling to the right, the other to the left:
:<math> f(x,t) = \phi(x+t) + \psi(x-t). </math>
 
The initial shape of the string is given by the function ''f''<sub>0</sub>. It was a controversial question in the 18th century, whether ''f''<sub>0</sub> must develop into a power series, or not necessarily.
 
D'Alembert held the opinion that the ''de-facto'' standard mentioned above still applies; ''f''<sub>0</sub> must be represented by a single equation. (He changed his opinion in 1780.)
 
The old standard was repudiated by Euler in 1744. He introduced "mixed" functions, given by different equations on two or more intervals. Moreover, he admitted functions that do not comply with any analytical law, whose graphs are traced by a free stroke of the hand.
 
Physically, the vibrating string may be thought of as an infinite collection of non-interacting harmonic oscillators (vibratory modes, harmonics). This idea, previously used by Euler in some special cases, turned into a general method of solving the wave equation by Daniel Bernoulli (1755). To this end the initial function has to be developed into a trigonometric series
:<math> f_0(x) = c_1 \sin x + c_2 \sin 2x + c_3 \sin 3x + \dots </math>
It was unclear, how many functions can be so developed. Bernoulli believed that a trigonometric series is as general as a power series.

Latest revision as of 02:25, 22 November 2023


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The Heisenberg uncertainty principle for a particle does not allow a state in which the particle is simultaneously at a definite location and has also a definite momentum. Instead the particle has a range of momentum and spread in location attributable to quantum fluctuations.

An uncertainty principle applies to most of quantum mechanical operators that do not commute (specifically, to every pair of operators whose commutator is a non-zero scalar operator).

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