imported>John Stephenson |
|
| (13 intermediate revisions by 4 users not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| A '''dialect''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word διάλεκτος, ''dialektos'') is a [[variety (linguistics)|variety]] of a [[language]] used by people from a particular geographic area. | | {{subpages}} |
| | A '''dialect''' is commonly considered to be a variety of a [[language (general)|language]] used by people from a particular geographic region or social group. For example, according to this definition [[British English]] is a dialect of [[English language|English]], while [[Austro-Bavarian language|Austro-Bavarian]] and [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]] both are [[German dialects]]. The study of dialects is known as [[dialectology]]. |
|
| |
|
| The preceding is a definition used by trained linguists and in academia. In popular usage, the word dialect is often used to refer to a lesser-known language, especially one that is unwritten or not standardized, or for which one does not know the name or linguistic relationship. This usage is illustrated by the phrase "in the local Indian dialect". This usage of the word dialect is often taken as pejorative by the speakers of the languages referred to in that way.
| | However, it is not always easy to determine whether a given way of speaking, [[written language|writing]] or [[sign language|signing]] is a language in its own right, or one of many closely related systems. Furthermore, since dialects tend to blend into each other over distance, and the differences between dialects can be more than that between two separate languages, whether the term is valid at all is open to question. [[linguistics|Linguists]] would argue that what counts as a dialect and what counts as a language is a largely social or cultural issue, as linguistic criteria to label any variety as a 'language' or a 'dialect' are disputable. |
|
| |
|
| The number of speakers, and the area itself, can be of [[wiktionary:arbitrary|arbitrary]] size. A dialect in a larger area can contain several sub-dialects. A dialect is a complete system of verbal communication (oral or [[sign language|signed]], but not necessarily written) with its own [[vocabulary]] and [[grammar]].
| | Generally, there is a tendency for dialects to lose their particular features and approximate the standard language of which they are considered variants. For example, this development is rapidly taking place in [[Flanders]], where it is also relatively new.<ref>http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=21308435</ref> |
|
| |
|
| Dialects can be distinguished from: [[sociolect]]s, which are varieties of a language spoken by a certain [[social class]];
| | ==Footnotes== |
| [[standard language]]s, which are standardized for public performance (e.g. written standard); [[jargon]]s, which are characterized by differences in [[vocabulary]] (or [[lexicon]] according to linguist jargon); [[slang]]; [[patois]]; [[creole language|creoles]]; [[pidgin]]s or [[argot]]s.
| | {{reflist|2}} |
| | |
| Varieties of language such as dialects, [[idiolect]]s and sociolects can be distinguished not only by their vocabulary and grammar, but also by differences in [[phonology]] (including [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]]). If the distinctions are limited to phonology, one often uses the term ''[[accent (linguistics)|accent]] of a variety'' instead of ''variety'' or ''dialect.''
| |
| | |
| == Standard and non-standard dialects ==
| |
| A '''standard dialect''' (also known as a '''standardized dialect''' or "[[standard language]]") is a dialect that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include government recognition or designation; presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a "correct" spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, nonfiction, etc.). There may be multiple standard dialects associated with a language. For example, Standard [[American English]], [[Southern English]], Standard [[British English]], and Standard [[Indian English]] may all be said to be standard dialects of the [[English language]].
| |
| | |
| A [[nonstandard dialect]], like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is not the beneficiary of institutional support. <!-- no good example, rather a border case: For example, [[African-American Vernacular English]] may be said to be a nonstandard dialect of the English language. -->
| |
| | |
| == "Dialect" or "language" ==
| |
| | |
| There are no universally accepted criteria for distinguishing ''languages'' from ''dialects'', although a number of paradigms exist, which render sometimes contradictory results. The exact distinction is therefore a subjective one, dependent on the user's frame of reference.
| |
| | |
| [[Variety (linguistics)|Language varieties]] are often called ''dialects'' rather than ''languages''
| |
| * solely because they are not (or not recognized as) [[literary language]]s,
| |
| * because the speakers of the given language do not have a [[state]] of their own,
| |
| * or because their language lacks [[prestige dialect|prestige]].
| |
| | |
| The term ''[[idiom (subsystem of language)|idiom]]'' is used by some linguists instead of ''language'' or ''dialect'' when there is no need to commit oneself to any decision on the status with respect to this distinction.
| |
| | |
| [[Anthropology|Anthropological]] linguists define dialect as the specific form of a language used by a [[speech community]]. In other words, the difference between language and dialect is the difference between the abstract or general and the concrete and particular. From this perspective, no one speaks a "language," everyone speaks a dialect of a language. Those who identify a particular dialect as the "[[standard language|standard]]" or "proper" version of a language are in fact using these terms to express a social distinction.
| |
| | |
| Often, the standard language is close to the sociolect of the [[elite]] class.
| |
| | |
| In groups where prestige standards play less important roles, ''"dialect"'' may simply be used to refer to subtle regional variations in linguistic practices that are considered mutually intelligible, playing an important role to place strangers, carrying the message of wherefrom a stranger originates (which quarter or district in a town, which village in a rural setting, or which province of a country); thus there are many apparent "dialects" of [[Slavey language|Slavey]], for example, geographically widespread North American indigenous languages, by which the linguist simply means that there are many subtle variations among speakers who largely understand each other and recognize that they are each speaking "the same way" in a general sense.
| |
| | |
| Modern day linguistics knows that the [[Social status|status]] of language is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. [[Romansh language|Romansh]] came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects. An opposite example is the case of the [[Chinese language]] whose variations are often considered dialects and not languages despite their mutual unintelligibility because they share a common literary standard and common body of literature.
| |
| | |
| === "A language is a dialect with an army and navy" ===
| |
| | |
| :''Main article: [[A language is a dialect with an army and navy]].''
| |
| | |
| The [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] linguist [[Max Weinreich]] published the expression, "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot" ("אַ שפראַך איז אַ דיאַלעקט מיט אַן אַרמײ און פֿלאָט", "[[A language is a dialect with an army and navy]]"; in ''Yivo-bleter'' 25.1, 1945, p. 13), illustrating the fact that languages are created by [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. This is perhaps the most widely cited statement of an analogy that has been attributed to other authors. (Weinreich explicitly states that he did not coin it.) It has been suggested that the initial wording was provided by [[Hubert Lyautey]] as, "Une langue, c'est un dialecte qui possède une armée, une marine et une aviation." ("A language is a dialect with an army, a navy and an air force." ).
| |
| | |
| === Political factors ===
| |
| | |
| Depending on political realities and ideologies, the classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent. [[English language|English]] and [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]] illustrate the point. English and Serbo-Croatian each have two major variants ([[British English|British]] and [[American English|American]] English, and [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian]], respectively), along with numerous lesser varieties. For political reasons, analyzing these varieties as "languages" or "dialects" yields inconsistent results: British and American English, spoken by close political and military allies, are almost universally regarded as dialects of a single language, whereas the standard languages of [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]], which differ from each other to a similar extent as the dialects of English, are being treated by many linguists from the region as distinct languages, largely because the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies. ''The [[Serbo-Croatian language]] article deals with this topic much more fully.''
| |
| | |
| Parallel examples abound. [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], although mutually intelligible with [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], certain dialects of Serbian and to a lesser extent the rest of the [[South Slavic]] [[dialect continuum]] is considered by Bulgarian linguists to be a Bulgarian dialect, in contrast with the international view, and the view in the [[Republic of Macedonia]] which sees it as a language in its own right. In [[Lebanon]], the right-wing [[Guardians of the Cedars]], a fiercely nationalistic (mainly Christian) political party which opposes the country's ties to the [[Arab]] world, is agitating for [[Lebanese language|"Lebanese"]] to be recognized as a distinct language from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and not merely a dialect, and has even advocated replacing the [[Arabic alphabet]] with a revival of the ancient [[Phoenician alphabet]].
| |
| | |
| There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately altered to serve political purposes. One example is [[Moldovan language|Moldovan]]. No such language existed before 1945, and most non-Moldovan linguists remain sceptical about its classification. After the [[Soviet Union]] annexed the [[Romania|Romanian]] province of [[Bessarabia]] and renamed it [[Moldavia]], [[Romanian language|Romanian,]] a [[Romance language]], became known as Moldovan, the [[Cyrillic alphabet]] was restored and numerous [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] words were imported into the language, in an attempt to weaken any sense of shared national identity with Romania. After Moldavia won its independence in 1991 (and changed its name to [[Moldova]]), it reverted to a modified [[Latin alphabet]] as a rejection of the perceived political connotations of the Cyrillic alphabet. In 1996, however, the Moldovan parliament, citing fears of "Romanian expansionism," rejected a proposal from [[President of Moldova|President]] [[Mircea Snegur]] to change the name of the language back to Romanian, and in 2003 a Romanian-Moldovan [[dictionary]] was published, purporting to show that the two countries speak different languages. Linguists of the [[Romanian Academy]] reacted by declaring that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; while in Moldova, the head of the [[Academy of Sciences' Institute of Linguistics (Moldova)|Academy of Sciences' Institute of Linguistics]], [[Ion Bărbuţă]], described the dictionary as a politically motivated "absurdity".
| |
| | |
| In contrast, [[spoken languages of China|spoken languages]] of [[Han Chinese]] are usually referred to as dialects of one Chinese language, to promote national unity. ''The article "[[Identification of the varieties of Chinese]]" has more details''.
| |
| | |
| The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question "what is a language?" is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the [[Language-dialect aphorism|army-navy aphorism]] discussed at the end of the preceding section is cited.
| |
| | |
| === The historical linguistics point of view ===
| |
| | |
| Many [[historical linguistics|historical linguists]] view every speech form as a dialect of the older medium of communication from which it developed. This point of view sees the modern [[Romance languages]] as dialects of [[Latin]], modern [[Greek language|Greek]] as a dialect of ancient Greek, [[Tok Pisin]] as a dialect of English, and [[Scandinavian languages]] as dialects of [[Old Norse]]. This paradigm is not entirely problem-free. It sees genetic relationships as paramount; the "dialects" of a "language" (which itself may be a "dialect" of a yet older tongue) may or may not be mutually intelligible. Moreover, a parent language may spawn several "dialects" which themselves subdivide any number of times, with some "branches" of the tree changing more rapidly than others. This can give rise to the situation where two dialects (defined according to this paradigm) with a somewhat distant genetic relationship are mutually more readily comprehensible than more closely related dialects. This pattern is clearly present among the modern Romance tongues, with [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] having a high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither language shares with [[French language|French]], despite both languages being ''genetically'' closer to French than to each other: French has undergone more rapid change than have Spanish and Italian.
| |
| | |
| == Concepts in dialectology ==
| |
| Concepts in dialectology include:
| |
| | |
| ===Mutual intelligibility===
| |
| | |
| Some have attempted to distinguish dialects from languages by saying that dialects are [[mutually intelligible languages|mutually comprehensible]] while languages are not. But this concept may not be as clear-cut as it may at first seem. [[Italian language|Italian]] speakers and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] speakers, for example, may be able to understand a considerable proportion of each other's closely-related Romance languages, whereas [[Lombardy|Lombards]] and [[Sicily|Sicilians]], speaking what are described as dialects of the same language, may encounter considerable barriers to mutual comprehension.
| |
| | |
| ===Diglossia===
| |
| | |
| Another problem occurs in the case of [[diglossia]], used to describe a situation where, in a given society, there are two closely-related languages, one of high-prestige, which is generally used by the government and in formal texts, and one of low-prestige, which is usually the spoken [[vernacular]] tongue. An example of this is [[Sanskrit]], which was considered the proper way to speak in northern India, but only accessible by the upper class, and [[prakrit]] which was the common (and informal or [[vernacular]]) speech at the time.
| |
| | |
| ===Dialect continuum===
| |
| :''Main article: [[Dialect continuum]]
| |
| A [[dialect continuum]] is a network of dialects in which geographically adjacent dialects are mutually comprehensible, but with comprehensibility steadily decreasing as distance between the dialects increases. A well-known example is the [[Dutch language|Dutch]]-[[German language|German]] dialect continuum, a vast network of dialects with two recognized literary standards. Another such network of dialects is the one that exists among the [[Eastern Slavic languages]], among which [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] are recognized as three literary standards.
| |
| | |
| ===Diasystem===
| |
| | |
| A [[diasystem]] refers to a single genetic language which has two or more standard forms. An example is [[Hindi-Urdu]] or [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], which encompasses two main standard varieties, [[Urdu]] and [[Hindi]]. Another example is Norwegian, with [[Bokmål]] having developed closely with Danish and Swedish, and [[Nynorsk]] as a partly reconstructed language based on old dialects. Both are recognized as official languages in Norway.
| |
| | |
| ===Pluricentrism===
| |
| | |
| A [[pluricentric language]] is a language with several standard versions.
| |
| | |
| === The Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache framework ===
| |
| | |
| One analytical paradigm developed by professional linguists is known as the [[Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache]] framework. It has proved popular among linguists in Continental Europe, but is not so well known in English-speaking countries, especially among people who are not trained linguists. Although only one of many possible paradigms, it has the advantage of being constructed by trained linguists for the particular purpose of analyzing and categorizing varieties of speech, and has the additional merit of replacing such [[loaded words]] as "language" and "dialect" with the [[German language|German]] terms of [[Ausbausprache]], [[Abstandsprache]], and [[Dachsprache]], words that are not (yet) loaded with political, cultural, or emotional connotations.
| |
| | |
| == Dialects of English ==
| |
| | |
| ''See: [[List of dialects of the English language]]''
| |
| | |
| *Northern:
| |
| - [u] butler, cut, some
| |
| - /æ/ dance, grass, path
| |
| - /u:/ cow, down
| |
| | |
| *Southwestern:
| |
| - s-> z (six)
| |
| | |
| *Welsh:
| |
| - /a/ tap, bath
| |
| | |
| *Irish:
| |
| - rhotic 'r'
| |
| - monophtongal articulation [e:, o:] take, home
| |
| | |
| *Scottish:
| |
| - rhotic 'r' articulated in all positions
| |
| - nondistinctive length lad/lard, fud/ food, cot/caught
| |
| | |
| ==Selected list of articles on dialects==
| |
| | |
| *[[Varieties of Arabic]]
| |
| *[[List of Assyrian tribes]] (dialects)
| |
| *[[Catalan dialect examples]]
| |
| *[[List of Chinese dialects]]
| |
| *[[List of dialects of the English language]]
| |
| *[[Flemish dialects]]
| |
| *[[Dialects of the French language]]
| |
| *[[Cypriot dialect]]
| |
| *[[Connacht Irish]], [[Munster Irish]], [[Ulster Irish]]
| |
| *[[Filipino vs. Tagalog]]
| |
| *[[Italian dialects]]
| |
| *[[Sicilian language]]
| |
| *[[Japanese dialects]]
| |
| *[[Korean dialects]]
| |
| *[[Norwegian dialects]]
| |
| *[[Isfahani]], [[Shirazi]], [[Yazdi]] (Persian dialects)
| |
| *[[Warsaw dialect]]
| |
| *[[Portuguese dialects]]
| |
| *[[Dialects in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia]]
| |
| *[[Slovenian dialects]]
| |
| *[[Spanish dialects and varieties]]
| |
| *[[Swedish dialects in Ostrobothnia]]
| |
| *[[Scanian]]
| |
| *[[Älvdalsmål]]
| |
| *[[Gutniska]]
| |
| *[[Jamtlandic]]
| |
| *[[Yooper dialect]]
| |
| *[[Sri Lankan Tamil dialects]]
| |
|
| |
|
| ==See also== | | ==See also== |
| *[[Accent (linguistics)|Accent]] | | *[[Accent (linguistics)|Accent]] |
| *[[Dialect continuum]] | | *[[Dialect continuum]] |
| *[[Dialect levelling]]
| |
| *[[Dialectometry]]
| |
| *[[Diglossia]] | | *[[Diglossia]] |
| *[[Ethnolect]]
| | *[[Language (general)]] |
| *[[Isogloss]]
| | *[[Lingua franca]] |
| *[[Koiné language]]
| | *[[Linguistics]][[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]] |
| *[[Language]] | |
| *[[Prestige dialect]]
| |
| *[[Programming language dialect]]
| |
| *[[Sprachbund]]
| |
| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| * [http://www.terralingua.org/Definitions/DLangDialect.html Language or dialect?] (Terralingua)
| |
| * [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9215/arts.htm Incorporating Dialect Study into the Language Arts Class]
| |
| * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-4/dialects.htm Vernacular Dialects in U.S. Schools]
| |
| * [http://www.theverybestofstuff.de/contents/dialectology.html Fishermen's Dialect on the South-East Coast of Scotland.]
| |
| * [[Yorkshireisms|Yorkshireisms The Yorkshire Dialect]]
| |
| * [http://www.sedgleymanor.com/dictionaries/dialect.html Black Country Dialect of Central England] - The dialect of the Black Country area remains perhaps one of the last examples of early English still spoken today. | |
| * [http://www.dialectometry.com/dmdocs/englisch_fr.html Dialectometry.com]
| |
| * [http://www.whoohoo.co.uk whoohoo.co.uk British Dialect Translator]
| |
| * [http://www.freewebs.com/englishdialects/ Original English Dialect Poetry] | |
| | |
| [[Category:CZ Live]] | |
| [[Category:Linguistics Workgroup]] | |
