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| | '''Phonology''', as one of the central fields of [[linguistics]], is the study of the system speakers use to represent and store linguistic information about the form of [[language (general)|language]] items, other than their [[semantics (linguistics)|semantic]] or [[syntax (linguistics)|syntactic]] structures. This system converts units of [[sound]] in a [[spoken language]] or [[hand]] movements in a [[sign language]]<ref>Signs are distinguished from [[gestures]], such as waving at someone in greeting, in that the latter are non-linguistic or supply extra meaning alongside the linguistic message.</ref> into [[abstraction|abstract]] units of the [[mind]], about which language users may have specific perceptions regarding their similarity, differences or how they pattern together. It is knowledge of a phonological system that allows an [[English language|English]] speaker, for instance, to know without being told that ''fum'' could be an acceptable word but *''fwe''<ref>Linguists use an asterisk * before an example to indicate that informants regard it as unacceptable in some way.</ref> could not, and it is the study of phonology that allows linguists to ask why and how that should be. |
| '''Phonology'''<ref>[[Greek language|Greek]] ''phonē'' = voice/sound and ''logos'' = word/speech.</ref> is a subfield of [[linguistics]] which studies the system speakers use to represent language; this includes units of [[sound]], [[orthography|letters]] on a page, [[hand]] movements in a [[sign language]], and even the dots and dashes of [[Morse code]]. For example, ''cat'' can be expressed through the utterance [kæt],<ref>Symbols in square brackets represent speech sounds using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]; slanting brackets, as in /kæt/ 'cat', are used to represent [[phoneme]]s - distinct, abstract units that may represent several sounds or written letters.</ref> the letters ''c'', ''a'' and ''t'', or a sign made with the hands. Although there are potentially infinitely many ways of producing a [[sound]], shaping a [[letter]] or moving a [[hand]], phonologists are interested only in how these group into abstract categories: for example, how and why [k] is often perceived as different from [t], whereas in many languages, other sounds as different as those are not. | |
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| ''[[Phonetics]]'' focuses on the physical sounds of speech, so often informs phonological inquiry by showing how [[pronunciation]]s are related.<ref>Phonetics also covers [[speech perception]] (how the brain discerns sounds) and [[acoustics]] (the physical qualities of sounds as movement through air), as well as the study of articulation (sound production through the movements of the lungs, tongue, etc.).</ref> However, since this does not primarily concern itself with the study of abstract patterns in language, phoneticians' work usually complements linguistics, rather than describes a central component.
| | Although there are many ways of making a [[sound]] or moving a [[hand]], phonologists are interested only in those which can be grouped into abstract linguistic units or categories. For example, they might examine how and why speakers of many languages perceive the difference between the sounds [l] and [r] to be nonsignificant,<ref>Symbols in square brackets represent speech sounds using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]; slanting brackets, as in /kæt/ 'cat', are used to represent [[phoneme]]s - distinct, abstract units that may represent several sounds.</ref> whereas others consider them distinct enough to distinguish different [[word (language)|word]]s.<ref>[[Japanese language|Japanese]] has a single phoneme /r/ to represent ''l'' and ''r'', while English contains two, i.e. /l/ and /r/.</ref> Phonology also goes beyond differences between individual sounds, involving topics such as [[syllable]] structure, [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], [[accent (linguistics)|accent]] and [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]. |
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| An important part of phonology is studying which sounds are distinctive units within a language. In [[English language|English]], for example, /p/ and /b/ are distinctive units, (i.e., they are ''[[phoneme]]s'' - the difference is ''phonemic''). This can be seen from [[minimal pair]]s such as ''pin'' and ''bin'', which mean different things, but differ only in one unit. On the other hand, [p] is often [[pronunciation|pronounced]] differently depending on its position relative to other sounds, yet these different pronunciations are still considered by [[native speakers]] to be the same 'sound'. For example, the [p] in 'pin' involves a strong release of air ( [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]] while the same phoneme in 'spin' does not. In some other languages, for example [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Quechua]], this same difference of aspiration versus non-aspiration is phonemic, and therefore speakers will consider them to be significantly different.
| | One task in phonology is to identify distinctive units within a language. For example, in English, the words ''pin'' and ''bin'' seem to each consist of three ''segments'', with only the first differing. Phonologists may refer to these first units as different ''[[phoneme]]s'', and the contrast between /p/ and /b/ as ''phonemic'' - the two words are a ''minimal pair'' differing by only one phoneme. In ''pin'' and ''spin'', on the other hand, though the two ''p'' sounds are phonetically rather different, English speakers would consider them the same /p/ phoneme. In other languages, for example [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Quechua language|Quechua]], this same difference of [[aspiration (linguistics)|aspiration]]<ref>''Aspiration'' is the explosion of air as the sounds [p], [t] and [k] are articulated at the beginning of a stressed syllable or the very beginning of an utterance in English. It does not occur after [s] within syllables, but some speakers do have aspiration syllable-finally. Aspiration can be observed by holding a piece of paper in front of the mouth as words such as ''pin'' are pronounced; the paper will flap in the extra airflow, whereas it will not for ''spin''.</ref> versus non-aspiration is phonemic, and therefore speakers will consider them to be significantly different. Though most phonologists no longer consider phonemes to be psychologically 'real', they remain in phonological study as a kind of shorthand for referring to more complex phonological representations that more adequately explain how such examples differ.<ref>See Chomsky & Halle (1968) for the first major work that abandoned the phoneme as a true unit of phonology, in favour of more abstract ''phonological features''.</ref> |
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| In addition to the minimal meaningful sounds (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, such as the /p/ in English described above, and topics such as [[syllable]] structure, [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], [[accent (linguistics)|accent]], and [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]].
| | ''[[Phonetics]]'' focuses on the physical sounds of speech, and thus it often informs phonological inquiry by showing how [[pronunciation]]s are related.<ref>Phonetics also studies [[speech perception]] (how the brain discerns sounds) and [[acoustics]] (the physical qualities of sounds as movement through air), as well as articulation (sound production through the movements of the lungs, tongue, etc.).</ref> However, since this sort of inquiry does not primarily concern itself with the study of abstract patterns in language, phoneticians' work usually complements linguistics, rather than constituting a central component. |
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| The principles of phonological theory have also been applied to the analysis of [[sign language]]s, in which it is argued that the same or a similar phonological system underlies both signed and spoken languages. (Signs are distinguished from [[gestures]] in that the latter are non-linguistic or supply extra meaning alongside the linguistic message.)
| | Most writing systems, such as the [[Roman alphabet]] used for English, represent phonology in some way, such as the letter ''b'' indicating the phoneme /b/, though this relationship is often inexact. This relationship between reading and phonological knowledge is of concern to linguists interested in [[orthography]] (written language), [[language acquisition]] specialists, and educators concerned with developing literacy.<ref>See for example Frost & Katz (1992); Young-Scholten (2002); Connor et al. (2007).</ref> |
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| | ==Topics in phonology== |
| | '''Insert other topics here - e.g. intonation, stress''' |
| | ===Syllables=== |
| | :''Main article: [[Syllable]]'' |
| | Native speakers of many languages may well have certain intuitions about how many 'beats' there are in a given word; for example, most English speakers would agree that there are two 'syllables' in the word ''butter'' but only one in ''but''. That such phonological intuitions exist is one reason for phonologists to want to find about what syllables are; another reason is that assuming their existence explains a good deal about the way sounds and signs pattern in language. |
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| ==Representing phonemes==
| | Syllables cannot be defined through reference to breathing or articulatory movements; they are abstract, phonological units rather than a physical phenomenon. Syllables do not easily correspond to muscular contractions, for instance; nor do they correlate well with predictable changes in [[pitch]].<ref>See Laver (1994: 114); Davenport & Hannahs (2005: 73-74).</ref> Initially, defining syllables was such a difficult task that early [[generative phonology]] ignored it; only in the 1970s and 1980s was a serious reanalysis attempted.<ref>Chomsky & Halle (1968) do not use the syllable; it was reintroduced gradually as a segment-based boundary-creation rule (Hooper, 1972), then later as a full unit of phonological organisation (Selkirk, 1984).</ref> |
| [[Image:Phonological_Diagram_of_modern_Arabic_and_Hebrew_vowels.png|thumb|256px|The vowels of modern (Standard) Arabic and (Israeli) Hebrew from the phonological point of view. Note the intersection of the two circles—the distinction between short ''a'', ''i'' and ''u'' is made by both speakers, but Arabic lacks the mid articulation of short vowels, while Hebrew lacks the distinction of vowel length.]]
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| The [[writing systems]] of some languages are based on the phonemic principle of having one [[letter]] (or combination of letters) per [[phoneme]] and vice-versa. Ideally, speakers can correctly write whatever they can say, and can correctly read anything that is written. (In practice, this ideal is never realized.) However in English, different spellings can be used for the same phoneme (e.g., ''rude'' and ''food'' have the same [[vowel]] sounds), and the same letter (or combination of letters) can represent different phonemes (e.g., the "th" [[consonant]] sounds of ''thin'' and ''this'' are different). In order to avoid this confusion based on [[orthography]], phonologists represent phonemes by writing them between two slashes: " / / " (but without the quotes). On the other hand, the actual sounds are enclosed by square brackets: " [ ] " (again, without quotes). While the letters between slashes may be based on spelling conventions, the letters between square brackets are usually the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) or some other [[phonetic transcription]] system.
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| ==Phoneme inventories==
| | Since the syllable was reintroduced to phonological theory, it has come to be seen as essential in defining the behaviour of segments and stress in many languages. For instance, predicting whether a British English /l/ will be velarised or not is difficult without referring to positions within the syllable: if an [l] forms part of the ''rhyme'' of the syllable (the component containing the vowel or syllabic consonant) it will be velarised; if it is part of the ''onset'' (the initial part of the syllable), then it will not.<ref>Without the syllable, a set of untidy rules is required to explain the distribution of what are called 'clear' and 'dark' (velarised) ''l'': the dark ''l'' appears word-finally (''pal'', ''panel'') and before a consonant (''hold''), ''except'' before [j] (''Italian''); otherwise, clear ''l'' appears.</ref> The syllable is one of the mechanisms that organise the order and positioning of segments. |
| ===Doing a phoneme inventory===
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| [[Image:Phonetic_Diagram_of_modern_Arabic_and_Hebrew_vowels.png|thumb|256px|The vowels of modern (Standard) Arabic and (Israeli) Hebrew from the phonetic point of view. Note that the two circles are totally separate—none of the vowel-sounds made by speakers of one language are made by speakers of the other.]] | |
| Part of the phonological study of a language involves looking at data (phonetic [[transcription (linguistics)|transcriptions]] of the speech of [[native speaker]]s) and trying to deduce what the underlying [[phoneme]]s are and what the sound inventory of the language is. Even though a language may make distinctions between a small number of phonemes, speakers actually produce many more phonetic sounds. Thus, a phoneme in a particular language can be pronounced in many ways.
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| Looking for minimal pairs forms part of the research in studying the phoneme inventory of a language. A [[minimal pair]] is a pair of words from the same language, that differ by only a single sound, and that are recognized by speakers as being two different words. When there is a minimal pair, the two sounds constitute separate phonemes. (It is often not possible to detect all phonemes with this method so other approaches are used as well.)
| | ==Theories of phonology== |
| | '''Some explanation of the main theories, e.g. generative phonology, autosegmental phonology, phonology in optimality theory, government phonology, natural phonology''' |
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| ===Phonemic distinctions or allophones=== | | ==Footnotes== |
| If two similar sounds do not constitute separate phonemes, they are called [[allophone]]s of the same underlying phoneme. For instance, voiceless stops ({{IPA |/p/, /t/, /k/}}) can be aspirated. In English, [[voiceless stop]]s at the beginning of a word are [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]], whereas after {{IPA|/s/}} they are not aspirated. (This can be seen by putting the fingers right in front of the lips and noticing the difference in breathiness as 'pin' and 'spin' is said.) There is no English word 'pin' that starts with an unaspirated p, therefore in English, aspirated {{IPA |[pʰ]}} (the {{IPA |[ʰ]}} means aspirated) and unaspirated {{IPA|[p]}} are allophones of an underlying phoneme {{IPA|/p/}}.
| | {{reflist|2}} |
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| Another example of allophones in English is how the {{IPA|/t/}} sounds in the words 'tub', 'stub', 'but', and 'butter' are all pronounced differently (in American English at least), yet are all perceived as "the same sound."
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| Another example: in English and many other languages, the liquids {{IPA |/l/}} and {{IPA|/r/}} are two separate phonemes (minimal pair 'life', 'rife'); however, in [[Korean language|Korean]] these two liquids are allophones of the same phoneme, and the general rule is that {{IPA |[ɾ]}} comes before a vowel, and {{IPA |[l]}} does not (e.g. ''Seou'''l''''', ''Ko'''r'''ea''). A native speaker will tell you that the {{IPA |[l]}} in Seoul and the {{IPA |[ɾ]}} in Korean are in fact the same sound. What happens is that a native Korean speaker's brain recognises the underlying phoneme {{IPA |/l/}}, and, depending on the phonetic context (whether before a vowel or not), expresses it as either {{IPA |[ɾ]}} or {{IPA |[l]}}. Another Korean speaker will hear both sounds as the underlying phoneme and think of them as the same sound. This is one reason why most people have a marked accent when they attempt to speak a language that they did not grow up hearing; their brains sort the sounds they hear in terms of the phonemes of their own native language.
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| ===Change of a phoneme inventory over time===
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| The particular sounds which are phonemic in a language can change over time. At one time, {{IPA |[f]}} and {{IPA |[v]}} were allophones in English, but these later changed into separate phonemes. This is one of the main factors of historical change of languages as described in [[historical linguistics]].
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| ==Other topics in phonology==
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| Phonology also includes topics such as [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]], [[elision]], [[epenthesis]], [[vowel harmony]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], non-phonemic [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] and [[phonotactics]]. Prosody includes topics such as [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] and [[intonation]].
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| ===Word stress===
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| In some languages, [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] is non-phonemic. Some examples include [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and all ancient Germanic languages ([[Old Norse]], [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Old High German]]) as well as some modern Germanic languages such as [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]. However, in other modern-day Germanic languages such as German or English, stress is phonemically distinctive, although there are only a few minimal pairs. In German, for example, {{IPA |/ˈaugust/}}, the personal name August, contrasts with {{IPA |/auˈgust/}} , the month August.
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| The distinction of stress is often seen in English words where the verb and noun forms have the same spelling. For example, consider {{IPA|/ˈrɛbəl/}} 'rebel' the noun (which places the emphasis on the first syllable) contrasted with {{IPA|/rɪˈbɛl/}} 'rebel' the verb (which instead puts the emphasis on the second syllable).
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| Another example is the pair ''insight'' {{IPA|/ˈɪnsaɪt/}} and ''incite'' {{IPA|/ɪnˈsaɪt/}}, where in the former the stress lies on the first syllable and in the latter on the second syllable. In some regional pronunciations of American English, the words ''Missouri'' and ''misery'' are also distinguished only by stress: in ''Missouri'', the stress lies on the penultimate syllable, but in ''misery'' it lies on the first syllable.
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| ==Development of the field==
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| In [[Kingdoms of Ancient India|ancient India]], the [[Sanskrit]] [[grammarian]] {{Unicode|[[Pāṇini]]}} (c. [[520 BC|520]]–[[460 BC]]), who is considered the founder of [[linguistics]], in his text of Sanskrit phonology, the ''[[Shiva Sutra]]s'', discovers the concepts of the [[phoneme]], the [[morpheme]] and the [[root (linguistics)|root]]. The ''Shiva Sutras'' describe a phonemic notational system in the fourteen initial lines of the ''{{Unicode|[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]}}''. The notational system introduces different clusters of phonemes that serve special roles in the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of Sanskrit, and are referred to throughout the text. Panini's grammar of Sanskrit had a significant influence on [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], the father of modern [[structuralism]], who was a professor of Sanskrit.
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| The [[Polish people|Polish]] scholar [[Jan Baudouin de Courtenay]] coined the word ''[[phoneme]]'' in 1876, and his work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He worked not only on the theory of the phoneme but also on phonetic alternations (i.e., what is now called [[allophony]] and [[morphophonology]]). His influence on [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] was also significant.
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| Prince [[Nikolai Trubetzkoy]]'s posthumously published work, the ''Principles of Phonology'' (1939), is considered the foundation of the [[Prague School]] of phonology. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetskoy is considered the founder of [[morphophonology]], though morphophonology was first recognized by Baudouin de Courtenay. Trubetzkoy split phonology into [[phonemics]] and [[archiphoneme|archiphonemics]]; the former has had more influence than the latter. Another important figure in the Prague School was [[Roman Jakobson]], who was one of the most prominent linguists of the [[twentieth century]].
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| In 1968, [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[Morris Halle]] published ''[[The Sound Pattern of English]]'' (SPE), the basis for [[Generative Phonology]]. In this view, phonological representations (surface forms) are structures whose phonetic part is a sequence of phonemes which are made up of [[distinctive feature]]s. These features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, [[Gunnar Fant]], and Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a universally fixed set, and have the binary values + or -. Ordered phonological rules govern how this phonological representation (also called underlying representation) is transformed into the actual pronunciation (also called surface form.) An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable and the emphasis on segments. Furthermore, the Generativists folded morphology into phonology, which both solved and created problems.
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| In the late 1960s, [[David Stampe]] introduced [[Natural Phonology]]. In this view, phonology is based on a set of universal [[phonological process]]es which interact with one another; which ones are active and which are suppressed are language-specific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on [[distinctive feature]]s within prosodic groups. Prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance. Phonological processes are unordered with respect to each other and apply simultaneously (though the output of one process may be the input to another). The second-most prominent Natural Phonologist is Stampe's wife, [[Patricia Donegan]]; there are many Natural Phonologists in Europe, though also a few others in the U.S., such as [[Geoffrey Pullum]]. The principles of Natural Phonology were extended to [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] by [[Wolfgang U. Dressler]], who founded [[Natural Morphology]].
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| In [[1976]] [[John Goldsmith]] introduced [[autosegmental phonology]]. Phonological phenomena are no longer seen as ''one'' linear sequence of segments, called phonemes or feature combinations, but rather as ''some parallel sequences'' of features which reside on multiple tiers.
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| [[Government Phonology]], which originated in the early 1980s as an attempt to unify theoretical notions of syntactic and phonological structures, is based on the notion that all languages necessarily follow a small set of [[principle]]s and vary according to their selection of certain binary [[parameter]]s. That is, all languages' phonological structures are essentially the same, but there is restricted variation that accounts for differences in surface realizations. Principles are held to be inviolable, though parameters may sometimes come into conflict. Prominent figures include [[Jonathan Kaye]], [[Jean Lowenstamm]], [[Jean-Roger Vergnaud]], [[Monik Charette]], [[John Harris(linguist)|John Harris]], and many others.
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| In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, [[Alan Prince]] and [[Paul Smolensky]] developed [[Optimality Theory]]—an overall architecture for phonology according to which languages choose a pronunciation of a word that best satisfies a list of [[constraint]]s which is ordered by importance: a lower-ranked constraint can be violated when the violation is necessary in order to obey a higher-ranked constraint. The approach was soon extended to morphology by [[John McCarthy (linguist)|John McCarthy]] and [[Alan Prince]], and has become the dominant trend in phonology. Though this usually goes unacknowledged, Optimality Theory was strongly influenced by Natural Phonology; both view phonology in terms of constraints on speakers and their production, though these constraints are formalized in very different ways.
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| ==See also== | | ==See also== |
| | | *[[Phonetics]] |
| * [[Phoneme]]
| | *[[Linguistics]][[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]] |
| * [[Morphophonology]]
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| * [[Phonological hierarchy]]
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| * [[Prosody (linguistics)]]
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| * [[English phonology]]
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| * [[Shibboleth]]
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| ==External links==
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| * <small>SIL: </small>[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPhonology.htm What is phonology?]
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| * <small>SIL: </small>[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAutosegmentalPhonology.htm What is autosegmental phonology?]
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| * <small>SIL: </small>[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsGenerativePhonology.htm What is generative phonology?]
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| * <small>SIL: </small>[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsLexicalPhonology.htm What is lexical phonology?]
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| * <small>SIL: </small>[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsMetricalPhonology.htm What is metrical phonology?] | |
| * <small>SIL: </small>[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAPhonologicalDerivation.htm What is a phonological derivation?]
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| * <small>SIL: </small>[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPhonologicalHierarchy.htm What is phonological hierarchy?]
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| * <small>SIL: </small>[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPhonologicalSymmetry.htm What is phonological symmetry?]
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| * <small>SIL: </small>[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAPhonologicalUniversal.htm What is a phonological universal?] | |
| * <small>Lexicon of linguistics: </small>[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Metrical+phonology&lemmacode=540 Metrical phonology]
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| * [http://www.celt.stir.ac.uk/staff/HIGDOX/STEPHEN/PHONO/PHONOLG.HTM On-line phonology course] (of [[English language|English]])
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| * [http://davidbrett.uniss.it/index Another on-line phonology course dealing with English] using large amounts of [[Macromedia Flash]] interaction.
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| * [http://specgram.com/PsQ.XVI.4/06.pulju.indefinite.html Variation in the English Indefinite Article]: A humorous article demonstrating the importance of phonology (as opposed to merely syntax and semantics) in linguistic analysis.
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| ==Bibliography==
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| * Anderson, John M.; and Ewen, Colin J. (1987). ''Principles of dependency phonology''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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| * Bloch, Bernard. (1941). Phonemic overlapping. ''American Speech'', ''16'', 278-284.
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| * Bloomfield, Leonard. (1933). ''Language''. New York: H. Holt and Company. (Revised version of Bloomfield's 1914 ''An introduction to the study of language'').
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| * Brentari, Diane (1998). ''A prosodic model of sign language phonology.'' Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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| * Chomsky, Noam. (1964). Current issues in linguistic theory. In J. A. Fodor and J. J. Katz (Eds.), ''The structure of language: Readings in the philosophy language'' (pp. 91-112). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
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| * Chomsky, Noam; and Halle, Morris. (1968). ''The sound pattern of English''. New York: Harper & Row.
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| * Clements, George N. (1985). The geometry of phonological features. ''Phonology Yearbook'', ''2'', 225-252.
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| * Clements, George N.; and Samuel J. Keyser. (1983). ''CV phonology: A generative theory of the syllable''. Linguistic inquiry monographs (No. 9). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-2625-3047-3 (pbk); ISBN 0-2620-3098-5 (hbk).
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| * [[J. R. Firth|Firth, J. R.]] (1948). Sounds and prosodies. ''Transactions of the Philological Society 1948'', 127-152.
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| * Gilbers, Dicky; and de Hoop, Helen. (1998). Conflicting constraints: An introduction to optimality theory. ''Lingua'', ''104'', 1-12.
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| * Goldsmith, John A. (1979). The aims of [[autosegmental phonology]]. In D. A. Dinnsen (Ed.), ''Current approaches to phonological theory'' (pp. 202-222). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
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| * Goldsmith, John A. (1989). ''Autosegmental and metrical phonology: A new synthesis''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
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| * Halle, Morris. (1954). The strategy of phonemics. ''Word'', ''10'', 197-209.
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| * Halle, Morris. (1959). ''The sound pattern of Russian''. The Hague: Mouton.
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| * Harris, Zellig. (1951). ''Methods in structural linguistics''. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
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| * Hockett, Charles F. (1955). ''A manual of phonology''. Indiana University publications in anthropology and linguistics, memoirs II. Baltimore: Waverley Press.
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| * Hooper, Joan B. (1976). ''An introduction to natural generative phonology''. New York: Academic Press.
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| * Jakobson, Roman. (1949). On the identification of phonemic entities. ''Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague'', ''5'', 205-213.
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| * Jakobson, Roman; Fant, Gunnar; and Halle, Morris. (1952). ''Preliminaries to speech analysis: The distinctive features and their correlates''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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| * Kaisse, Ellen M.; and Shaw, Patricia A. (1985). On the theory of lexical phonology. In E. Colin and J. Anderson (Eds.), ''Phonology Yearbook 2'' (pp. 1-30).
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| * Kenstowicz, Michael. ''Phonology in generative grammar''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
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| * Ladefoged, Peter. (1982). ''A course in phonetics'' (2nd ed.). London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
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| * Martinet, André. (1949). ''Phonology as functional phonetics''. Oxford: Blackwell.
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| * Martinet, André. (1955). ''Économie des changements phonétiques: Traité de phonologie diachronique''. Berne: A. Francke S.A.
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| * Pike, Kenneth. (1947). ''Phonemics: A technique for reducing languages to writing''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
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| * Sapir, Edward. (1925). Sound patterns in language. ''Language'', ''1'', 37-51.
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| * Sapir, Edward. (1933). La réalité psychologique des phonémes. ''Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique'', ''30'', 247-265.
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| * de Saussure, Ferdinand. (1916). ''Cours de linguistique générale''. Paris: Payot.
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| * Stampe, David. (1979). ''A dissertation on natural phonology''. New York: Garland.
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| * Swadesh, Morris. (1934). The phonemic principle. ''Language'', ''10'', 117-129.
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| * Trager, George L.; and Bloch, Bernard. (1941). The syllabic phonemes of English. ''Language'', ''17'', 223-246.
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| * Trubetzkoy, Nikolai. (1939). ''Grundzüge der Phonologie''. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague 7.
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| [[Category:Linguistics]]
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Phonology, as one of the central fields of linguistics, is the study of the system speakers use to represent and store linguistic information about the form of language items, other than their semantic or syntactic structures. This system converts units of sound in a spoken language or hand movements in a sign language[1] into abstract units of the mind, about which language users may have specific perceptions regarding their similarity, differences or how they pattern together. It is knowledge of a phonological system that allows an English speaker, for instance, to know without being told that fum could be an acceptable word but *fwe[2] could not, and it is the study of phonology that allows linguists to ask why and how that should be.
Although there are many ways of making a sound or moving a hand, phonologists are interested only in those which can be grouped into abstract linguistic units or categories. For example, they might examine how and why speakers of many languages perceive the difference between the sounds [l] and [r] to be nonsignificant,[3] whereas others consider them distinct enough to distinguish different words.[4] Phonology also goes beyond differences between individual sounds, involving topics such as syllable structure, stress, accent and intonation.
One task in phonology is to identify distinctive units within a language. For example, in English, the words pin and bin seem to each consist of three segments, with only the first differing. Phonologists may refer to these first units as different phonemes, and the contrast between /p/ and /b/ as phonemic - the two words are a minimal pair differing by only one phoneme. In pin and spin, on the other hand, though the two p sounds are phonetically rather different, English speakers would consider them the same /p/ phoneme. In other languages, for example Thai and Quechua, this same difference of aspiration[5] versus non-aspiration is phonemic, and therefore speakers will consider them to be significantly different. Though most phonologists no longer consider phonemes to be psychologically 'real', they remain in phonological study as a kind of shorthand for referring to more complex phonological representations that more adequately explain how such examples differ.[6]
Phonetics focuses on the physical sounds of speech, and thus it often informs phonological inquiry by showing how pronunciations are related.[7] However, since this sort of inquiry does not primarily concern itself with the study of abstract patterns in language, phoneticians' work usually complements linguistics, rather than constituting a central component.
Most writing systems, such as the Roman alphabet used for English, represent phonology in some way, such as the letter b indicating the phoneme /b/, though this relationship is often inexact. This relationship between reading and phonological knowledge is of concern to linguists interested in orthography (written language), language acquisition specialists, and educators concerned with developing literacy.[8]
Topics in phonology
Insert other topics here - e.g. intonation, stress
Syllables
- Main article: Syllable
Native speakers of many languages may well have certain intuitions about how many 'beats' there are in a given word; for example, most English speakers would agree that there are two 'syllables' in the word butter but only one in but. That such phonological intuitions exist is one reason for phonologists to want to find about what syllables are; another reason is that assuming their existence explains a good deal about the way sounds and signs pattern in language.
Syllables cannot be defined through reference to breathing or articulatory movements; they are abstract, phonological units rather than a physical phenomenon. Syllables do not easily correspond to muscular contractions, for instance; nor do they correlate well with predictable changes in pitch.[9] Initially, defining syllables was such a difficult task that early generative phonology ignored it; only in the 1970s and 1980s was a serious reanalysis attempted.[10]
Since the syllable was reintroduced to phonological theory, it has come to be seen as essential in defining the behaviour of segments and stress in many languages. For instance, predicting whether a British English /l/ will be velarised or not is difficult without referring to positions within the syllable: if an [l] forms part of the rhyme of the syllable (the component containing the vowel or syllabic consonant) it will be velarised; if it is part of the onset (the initial part of the syllable), then it will not.[11] The syllable is one of the mechanisms that organise the order and positioning of segments.
Theories of phonology
Some explanation of the main theories, e.g. generative phonology, autosegmental phonology, phonology in optimality theory, government phonology, natural phonology
- ↑ Signs are distinguished from gestures, such as waving at someone in greeting, in that the latter are non-linguistic or supply extra meaning alongside the linguistic message.
- ↑ Linguists use an asterisk * before an example to indicate that informants regard it as unacceptable in some way.
- ↑ Symbols in square brackets represent speech sounds using the International Phonetic Alphabet; slanting brackets, as in /kæt/ 'cat', are used to represent phonemes - distinct, abstract units that may represent several sounds.
- ↑ Japanese has a single phoneme /r/ to represent l and r, while English contains two, i.e. /l/ and /r/.
- ↑ Aspiration is the explosion of air as the sounds [p], [t] and [k] are articulated at the beginning of a stressed syllable or the very beginning of an utterance in English. It does not occur after [s] within syllables, but some speakers do have aspiration syllable-finally. Aspiration can be observed by holding a piece of paper in front of the mouth as words such as pin are pronounced; the paper will flap in the extra airflow, whereas it will not for spin.
- ↑ See Chomsky & Halle (1968) for the first major work that abandoned the phoneme as a true unit of phonology, in favour of more abstract phonological features.
- ↑ Phonetics also studies speech perception (how the brain discerns sounds) and acoustics (the physical qualities of sounds as movement through air), as well as articulation (sound production through the movements of the lungs, tongue, etc.).
- ↑ See for example Frost & Katz (1992); Young-Scholten (2002); Connor et al. (2007).
- ↑ See Laver (1994: 114); Davenport & Hannahs (2005: 73-74).
- ↑ Chomsky & Halle (1968) do not use the syllable; it was reintroduced gradually as a segment-based boundary-creation rule (Hooper, 1972), then later as a full unit of phonological organisation (Selkirk, 1984).
- ↑ Without the syllable, a set of untidy rules is required to explain the distribution of what are called 'clear' and 'dark' (velarised) l: the dark l appears word-finally (pal, panel) and before a consonant (hold), except before [j] (Italian); otherwise, clear l appears.
See also
