Party system

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Party Systems refers to the political system of elections, parties, issues, voters and rules-of-the-game as it operated over long periods of time. It is a political science term; the term electoral systems is also used. The "system" reveals how political parties control the government, how they mobilize a base of voters, and how they develop means for funding, information, and selection of candidates and office holders. Party systems are separated by Realigning elections or "critical elections" which destroy the old system and create a new one. The term "party system" is also used in Canadian politics and occasionally for other nations.

Definitions

In a one-party system, a ruling party is nominated in the constitution, and political opposition is banned. The party constitutes the entirety of the political system, and there is no political activity except among party members. There are one-party systems in Cuba, North Korea, China and Iraq. In a dominant-party system there are several parties, one of which is consistently able to win more parliamentary seats than a combination of all the others. There have been dominant-party systems in Mexico, Japan, Russia and India. In a two-party system, the other parties have no expectation of forming a government and are consequently of little political importance. In a parliamentary democracy, such a system is stable only if each party can, from time to time, command enough parliamentary support to form a government. In a multi-party system no single party is expected to command a parliamentary majority over a combination of the others. Multi-party system normally form coalition governments in which minority parties may hold the balance of power. There are multi-party systems in Israel, Germany and Italy.

U.S. Models

The concept of party system was introduced by English scholar James Bryce in American Commonwealth (1885).

American Party Systems was a major textbook by Charles Merriam in the 1920s. In 1967 the most important single breakthrough appeared, The American Party Systems. Stages of Political Development, edited by William Nisbet Chambers and Walter Dean Burnham. It brought together historians and political scientists who agreed on a common framework and numbering system. Thus Chambers published the book The First Party System in 1972. Burnham published numerous articles and books. The model appears in most political science textbooks and many history textbooks, and is included in the AP tests in history and government that 300,000 high school students take every year.

Closely related is the concept of critical elections (introduced by V. O. Key in 1955), and "realignments."

U.S. History

First Party System

In American history, the First Party System saw the creation of the world's first popular parties.[1] All Americans were committed to the same set of republican values, but gtheir interpretation varies. Alexander Hamilton started them with the creation of a party that was (later) called the Federalist Party in 1790-92, as he created a nationwide network of supporters to stand up for his policies. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison opposed Hamilton's policies and created what they called the Republican party about 1792-93 (historians a century later called it the "Democratic-Republican Party"). Soon the political system in each state was polarized along the same lines. The new parties created the "rules of the game"[2] involving techniques to arouse and maintain the interest of citizens and their permanent loyalty to the party. The Federalists took the lead in creating party newspapers in every major city. State and local organizations were created. The Republicans selected their candidates for national office by a caucus of Congressman (the last time it worked was 1816). The Federalists had the first national convention, but lagged far behind in organizing skills. The peaceful transfer of power from Federalists to Republicans in 1800 set the standard. In terms of issues, the Federalists stood for a strong financial system (headed by a national bank), folding state debts into the national debt (so that bondholders would be onterested in the success of the national government), and a strong army and navy. The Republicans opposed all these points, and instead emphasized state's rights and a weak federal government. Foreign policy was a central concern. With Britain and France at war from 1793 to 1815, the Federalists favored Britain and denounced the French Revolution. The Republicans favored the French until Napoleon became dictator in 1799; they always opposed and feared the British. The Fedralists collapsed after 1816 and the Republicans lost their cohesion, breaking into four facgtions in 1824.

Second Party System

The Second Party System (1828-1854) revolved around the Democratic party founded by Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, opposing the Whig Party founded and led by Henry Clay. Major issues included Jacksonian opposition to banks and modernization. New rules of the game included the extension of the franchise to nearly all white men (including many immigrants), the spoils system (the winning party gets the offices), and more democracy in state and local government, such as election of judges and local officials.

Third Party System

The Third Party System (1854-1896) was dominated by the new Republican party. The central issues involved slavery, union, Civil War, emancipation, Reconstruction. and civil rights for Freedmen (the freed slaves). Economic issues involved the modernizing programs of the GOP, such as national banks, high protective tariffs, land grants to railroads, and federal aid to education. Also of importance were corruption issues and civil service, and (at the state level) prohibition of alcohol. It was an era of high immigration, especially from Germany, Britain and Scandinavia, with a consensus that Chinese immigration should be ended and a growing debate regarding German-language private schools. New rules included suffrage for Freedmen but not for women; the women responded with a suffragist movement. The System collapsed in the Panic of 1893, a severe nationwide depression that was blamed on the conservative "Bourbon Democrats" led by President Grover Cleveland.

Fourth Party System

See Fourth Party System The political regime from the 1890s to the 1930s is called the Progressive Era by historians, who focus more on social and cultural issues, as well as state and local politics. Political scientists focus more on national party structures, Constitutional amendments (especially woman suffrage and the direct election of senators), primary election laws, and turnout patterns. Everyone agrees that the system collapsed when the Republican party took the blame for the Great Depression, and that Franklin D. Roosevelt replaced it with his New Deal Coalition, or Fifth Party System.

Major rules changes include the disfranchisement of blacks in the South, the enfranchisement of women (first in the western states, then nationally in 1920), the direct election of senators which took the choice away from state legislatures, federal election finance laws, and (in many states), the weakening of parties through the direct primary, voter registration laws, and (to a lesser extent), the initiative, referendum and recall. Many cities set up bureaus of municipal research to apply the Efficient Movement to the running of local government. In Wisconsin, the "Wisconsin Plan" of Charles McCarthy made university experts government consultants.

Other changes in the rules included the decline of partisan newspapers in the wake of Yellow Journalism. Big city papers now made their profits from advertising, which depended on the number of readers. By dropping a strict party affiliation, newspaper barons like William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer could double their potential circulation. The theme of corruption was used by Muckraking journalists to expose bad conditions in the cities, and their cover-up by political machines.

Fifth Party System

See Fifth Party System

Canada

The First Party System (1967-1917) collapsed in the wartime conscription crisis. In the Second Party System (1921-57), dominated by the Liberals under Mackenzie King, a series of new party formations resulted, including the Unionists in 1917, farmer and left-wing parties in the Prairies, and a French party in Quebec. The Third Party System (1957-1984) was more Conservative. A Fourth Party System, mostly Liberal, has existed since 1984. [3]

Japan

Since World War II, Japan has had two party systems: the First Party System began in 1955, the Second in 1993. [4]

Bibliography: US

  • Bartley, Numan V. "Voters and Party Systems: A Review of the Recent Literature," The History Teacher, Vol. 8, No. 3 (May, 1975), pp. 452-469. online at JSTOR
  • Beck, Paul Allen. "Micropolitics in Macro Perspective: the Political History of Walter Dean Burnham." Social Science History 1986 10(3): 221-245. Issn: 0145-5532 Fulltext in Jstor
  • Brady, David, and Joseph Stewart, Jr. "Congressional Party Realignment and Transformations of Public Policy in Three Realignment Eras," American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 26, No. 2 (May, 1982), pp. 333-360 online at JSTOR Looks at links among cross-cutting issues, electoral realignments, the U.S. House and public policy changes during the Civil War, 1890's and New Deal realignments. In each case the policy changes are voted through by a partisan "new" majority party. The Civil War and 1890's realignments were more polarized than was the New Deal realignment, and the extent of party structuring of issue dimensions was greater.
  • Chambers, William Nisbet, and Walter Dean Burnham, eds. The American Party Systems. Stages of Political Development, (1967)
  • Chambers, William Nisbet. Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776–1809 (1963)
  • Gershtenson, Joseph. "Mobilization Strategies of the Democrats and Republicans, 1956-2000" Political Research Quarterly, Vol. 56, No. 3, 293-308 (2003)
  • Hofstadter, Richard. The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780-1840 (1970)
  • James, Scott C. Presidents, Parties, and the State: A Party System Perspective on Democratic Regulatory Choice, 1884-1936 (2000)
  • Jensen, Richard. "American Election Analysis: A Case History of Methodological Innovation and Diffusion," in S. M. Lipset, ed, Politics and the Social Sciences (Oxford University Press, 1969), 226-43.
  • Jensen, Richard. "History and the Political Scientist," in S. M. Lipset, ed, Politics and the Social Sciences (Oxford University Press, 1969), , 1-28.
  • Jensen, Richard. "Historiography of Political History," in Jack Greene ed., Encyclopedia of American Political History (Scribners, 1984), 1:1-25. online
  • Jensen, Richard. "The Changing Shape of Burnham`s Political Universe," Social Science History 10 (1986) 209-19 Issn: 0145-5532 Fulltext in Jstor
  • Kleppner, Paul ed. The Evolution of American Electoral Systems (1981)
  • Renda, Lex. "Richard P. McCormick and the Second American Party System." Reviews in American History (1995) 23(2): 378-389. Issn: 0048-7511 Fulltext in Project Muse.
  • Sundquist, James L. Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States], (1983) online edition

external links

Bibliography: World

  • James Bickerton and Alain-G. Gagnon, eds. Canadian Politics (4th ed 2004)
  • David M. Farrell, Comparing Electoral Systems (London: Macmillan, 1998) online excerpt
  • Ronald J. Hrebenar. Japan's New Party System (2000) online edition
  • Lauri Karvonen and Stein Kuhnle. Party Systems and Voter Alignments Revisited (2000)
  • Paul G. Lewis and Paul Webb, eds. Pan-European Perspectives on Party Politics (2003)
  • Seymour M. Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds. Party Systems And Voter Alignments (1967)
  • Scott Mainwaring and Timothy R. Scully. Building Democratic Institutions: Party Systems in Latin America (1996)
  • Peter Mair (ed.) The West European Party System (

Oxford University Press, 1990) online excerpt pp. 302-310

  • Sartori, Giovanni . Parties and Party Systems: A framework for analysis (1976; reprint 2005)
  • James Walch. Faction and Front: Party Systems in South India (1976)


See for the U.S.:

External links

  1. ↑ There were "parties" or groupings in the British Parliament, which had little connection to voters.
  2. ↑ A term coined by Frank Kent in the 1920s.
  3. ↑ James Bickerton and Alain-G. Gagnon, eds. Canadian Politics (4th ed 2004) p 247-9
  4. ↑ Hrebenar (2000)
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