Littoral warfare
Littoral warfare comprises two aspects of military operations near large bodies of water:
- Seaward: the area from theopen ocean to the shore, which must be controlled to support operations ashore.
- Landward: the area inland from the shore that can be supported and defended directly from the sea.
Littoral warfare, sometimes called "green water" operations, is distinguished from "blue water" operations far from land, and "brown water" operations and other military activity on rivers and other inland waterways. During the Cold War, the navies of major naval powers were optimized for blue water warfare. This meant that units such as aircraft carrier battle groups would spread out circular formations hundreds of mile in radius, when airborne early warning or airborne warning & control and long-range fighter aircraft. The ocean was sufficiently deep that submarines rarely, if ever, to wait silently on the bottom.
There are major differences in littoral warfare. Even relatively small powers can deploy extremely quiet battery-operated submarines on the seafloor, which rise and attack only when major vessels are in range. Small craft, including suicide speedboats, can hide on the coast, and attack with very little warning.
Since littoral operations often involve amphibious warfare, ranging from brief reconnaissance to major invasions, the characteristics of the approach to the beach, and the beach itself, are critical. Landing craft, for example, need to know about underwater obstacles (e.g., the "D-Day" landings at the Battle of Normandy were made at low tide, to reveal obstacles) and unusual tides (e.g., at the Battle of Tarawa). If vehicles are to go ashore, the bearing strength of the beach must be known.