Pilobolus crystallinus

Pilobolus crystallinus
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Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Fungi;
Phylum:	Zygomycota;
Class:	Zygomycetes;
Order:	Mucorales;
Family:	Pilobolaceae;
Genus:	Pilobolus;
Species:	P. crystallinus;
Binomial name
	Pilobolus crystallinus var. crystallinus; (F.H. Wigg.)Tode(1784)

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Main Article

Discussion

Description and significance

The species Pilobolus crystallinus is a type of spore forming fungus that falls into the order of a mucor that grows in the feces of herbivorous animals and decays it. According to Wikipedia two other common names for this fungus are the “Dung Cannon” or the “Hat Thrower”. It has predominantly been found growing in China. It has also been found growing in eastern and Midwestern United States and the Grand Canyon National Park. This fungus begins its life cycle in the form of a sporangium that has been discharged onto some grass. Herbivorous animals which are animals that eat grass such as cows, horses, deer’s, etc. comes along and eat the grass with the sporangium sitting on it. The sporangium passes through the digestive tract of the animal without causing any harm to the animal and without germinating. It is excreted outside the host in the feces of the animal where it begins germination growing as mycelium. They grow 2-4 centimeters tall under surfaces where oxygen concentration is low because oxygen prevents radial growth of it hyphae. The pilobolus decays the feces of the animal using the nitrogen, water etc. found in the feces as its source of food. Once the nutrients in the feces are depleted the pilobolus shoots it sporangium away from the feces into a new set of grass where it will sit waiting again to be eaten by herbivorous animals so it can repeat the lifecycle. McVickar in 1942 and later Ootaki et al. in 1993 categorized the development of pilobolus crystallinus into six stages. In the first stage there is elongation of the sporangiophore at the apex without rotation. The second stage a sporangiophore develops into a sporangium. In the third stage no growth occurs and in the fourth stage a subsporangial vesice starts expanding under the sporangium. Stage five spore maturation occurs and the hypha region below the subsporangial vesicle elongates and in the last stage, stage six the subsporangial vesicle bursts open and the sporangium are releases into the air.

This time lapse video of pilobolus crystallinus spore development and dispersal was documented by Dave Kalb and Kent Loeffler from Cornell University

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Genome structure

There is not much sequencing of the genome that has been done for this fungus. There has been partial sequencing of the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene, partial sequencing of the 18S and 28S ribosomal RNA gene. The 5.8S ribosomal RNA gene has been completely sequenced. Putative blue-light photoreceptor was used to study mRNA to isolate and characterization of MADA homolog in pilobolus crystallinus.

Cell structure and metabolism

Scanning and transmission electron microscope has been used in studying the structure of pilobolus crystallinus. The stalk which is a structure that resembles a plant stem is transparent and it rises above the feces. The stalk is always oriented towards the sunlight which increases the chances that the sporangium will land on a new set of grass once they have been dispersed. The subsporangial vesicle is a balloon like structure found at the end of the stalk. This vesicle fills with fluid and builds up a pressure called turgor pressure. Turgor pressure is the force that keeps the pilobolus upright and once the pressure builds up to 7 ATM or greater and the volume reaches 0.08 cubic millimeters the pilobolus is able shoot its sporangium to a fresh set of grass up to 2 meters away which is 6 feet reaching speed of 0-45 mph during the first millimeter of travel. The subsporangial vesicle also serves the function as a lens focusing light towards the base of the vesicle through the carotenoid pigments. On top of the subsporangial vesicle there is one black sporangium which is the structure that produces and contains the spores. The spores within the sporangium are called sporangiospores and the sporangiospore is an asexual fruiting structure found in the pilobolus species of fungus. There are two different sizes of calcium oxalate crystals, some large and some small covering the surface of the sporangium. These crystals are hydrophobic so when the spores of the pilobolus are shot into the air the hydrophobic part is repelled by the dew on the grass causing the sporangium to flip over so that they land on their bottom which is sticky. The large crystals surround the spines with a central pore which serves as protection. The vesicle contains a mucus like substance which enables the spores to stick to the grass it lands on. It travels through the digestive systems of animals and begins it growth in their feces.Pilobolus crystallinus reproduces asexually through the hyphae called the sporangiophore. The mycelium of pilobolus crystallinus spreads throughout the feces of the animal and its function is to absorb the nutrients found in the dung of the animal.

Ecology

Pilobolus crystallinus is a corprophilous or dung loving fungi. It is a heterotrophic organism meaning it is not able to produce its own food and depends on the nutrients in the feces of herbivorous animals as its food source. The feces of herbivorous animals contains many nutrients which include undigested plant remains, large quantities of mostly dead bacteria, water soluble vitamins, growth factors, carbohydrates and mineral ions such as corpogens It has a high nitrogen content, high water content, broken down red blood cells and bile pigment. Pilobolus crystallinus produces exoenzymes to digest its food outside its body and then it absorbs the nutrients and although it does not utilize all these nutrients in the animal feces it is dependent on the nitrogen source found in the dung of animals as it food source. It also needs the water found in the feces of animals in order to disperse its spores. Pilobolus uses the corpogen in the feces for its growth and reproduction. Pilobolus crystallinus has some unique features to enhance its chances for survival. They have the ability to disperse their spores up to six feet away to a new food source since herbivorous animals do not eat near their feces. It has phototropic response which means the entire sporangium grows towards sunlight and the sporangia are usually dispersed around midmorning when the sun is at its highest position in the sky so the sporangia is shot at a 45 degree angle maximizing the distance that the sporangia will travel.This determines the direction of the spores when they are dispersed and since grass grows in sunlight, this increases their chances that they will land on grass.Light rays that falls within the range of blue light of 450nm stimulates the phototrophic response in pilobolus crystallinus. The dark pigmentation of the spores protects them from being damaged by ultraviolet light. The spores vesicle has a sticky mucus that allows the spores to stick to vegetation. The spores does not germinate within the digestive tract of the herbivorous animals so they are able to with stand the high temperature and digestive enzymes of the gut. Nematodes has a symbiotic relationship with pilobolus crystallinus because they assist the fungi with decomposition of the animal feces but when the nutrients become depleted the nematodes larva usually sits on top of the fungi where it gets launched towards a new food source.

Pathology

Pilobolus crystallinus is not a parasitic organism and there have been no reported cases of this fungus causing any diseases in animals or plants. In the book, diseases of greenhouse crops and there control by Jacob J. Taubenhaus there was one reported case by Clinton of mechanical spotting on rose plants that was caused by pilobolus crystallinus. It was found that two rose beds that were mulched with cow manure resulted in roses that had black spots on the rose foliage and blossoms. The black spots were a result of the spores of the pilobolus getting stuck to these parts of the flowers when it was discharged. The problem did not incur great losses to the farmers and the problem resolved once all the spores were discharge.Herbivorous animals such as deer’s, cattle, elk, horses’ etc. can become infected by parasitic organisms called lungworms. The larva of the lungworm is excreted in the feces of these animals. The larva can position themselves on the sporangiophores of philobolus crystillinus and it is launched with the sporangium where they now have the ability to infect a new host.

Application to Biotechnology

Current Research

Observations on relationships between infective juveniles of bovine lungworm, Dictyocaulus viviparus (Nematoda: Strongylida) and the fungi, Pilobolus kleinii and P. crystallinus (Zygomycotina: Zygomycetes).

Robinson in 1962 filmed the lungworm larvae called dictyocaulus viviparous which is parasite to herbivorous animals as it climbs on to the sporangia of pilobolus crystallinus to be dispersed with the sporangia. It was found that about 50 larvae climbs onto the sporangia of the pilobolus to be discharged. These nematodes like pilobolus crystallinus has phototropic responses. Dictyocaulus viviparous is at risk for dessication or drying out during the process of spore dispersal. However, he dried sporangia of pilobolus crystallinus forms a sheath around the lungworm larvae keeping the larvae enclosed and protecting them from water loss and from being washed away by the rain. It was also found that the walls of the sporangia of pilobolus crystallinus protects the dictyocaulus from ultraviolet rays damage giving them better chances for survival.